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Theory
Overview |
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Chart of Multi-electron Atoms |
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Chart of Multi-electron Ions |
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Tutorial This tutorial briefly answers the question: What are atoms and molecules according to the Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics (GUT-CP)? Please consult the theory presentation for a more comprehensive introduction to the theory. The GUT-CP Model of the Atom Recall that in the Bohr model of the atom, the electron orbits the proton like a planet orbits the sun. The electron is thought to be a point-charge. However, according to Maxwell's Equations, a point-charge should radiate as it orbits, losing energy, causing it to collapse into the nucleus within a fraction of a second. Thus, an orbiting point-charge is inherently unstable. However, unlike a point-charge, an extended distribution of charge may, under certain conditions, accelerate without radiating. In 1990, Millsian founder, Dr. Randell Mills, solved the electron as a spherical shell of charge centered on the nucleus. This is called the orbitsphere, and is analogous to a soap bubble.
Unlike a rigid spinning sphere, the orbitsphere has a complex pattern of motion on its surface, which gives rise to two angular momentum vectors that give rise to the phenomenon of electron spin. Multi-Electron Atoms As more electrons are added to an atom, they either merge into an existing shell, or form a new, concentric shell, which gives an energy minimum. Each shell is an Atomic Orbital (AO), denoted by s, p, d, f, etc. The Maxwellian forces between these shells determines their radii. When electrons combine in a p or higher shell, they form non-uniform charge density distributions on the surface of the shell that are spherical harmonics (in Quantum Mechanics, these are spatial lobes.)
The Molecular Bond When two hydrogen atoms bond, the electrons stretch over both protons to form a prolate spheroidal shell, called a Molecular Orbital (MO). The charge builds up at the ends of the molecule, closer to the protons, reducing the total energy of the system. For more complex atoms, the MO shell can form around the AO shells, such as in O2 and N2, or it can form between them, such as in Cl2.
Visualizations of molecules on this site are real physical structures, and bear no resemblance to the electron-cloud-density distributions of traditional quantum mechanics. Instead, electrons are spheroidal layers of negative charge that occupy discrete positions in space (although they may be harmonically vibrating or rotating), and they remain stable due to Maxwell's Equations and Newton's Laws. Hover the mouse over the image below to view how scientists viewed the butane molecule before and after the GUT-CP breakthrough.
For more information, consult the theory presentation, theory papers, or the book by Dr. Randell Mills.
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