This tutorial briefly answers the
question: What are atoms and molecules according to the Grand
Unified Theory of Classical Physics (GUT-CP)?
Please consult the theory presentation
for a more comprehensive introduction to the theory.
The GUT-CP Model of the Atom
Recall that in the Bohr model of the atom, the electron orbits the proton like a planet orbits the sun.
The electron is thought to be a point-charge. However, according to Maxwell's Equations, a point-charge should radiate as it orbits, losing energy, causing it to
collapse into the nucleus within a fraction of a second. Thus,
an orbiting point-charge is inherently unstable.
However, unlike a point-charge, an
extended distribution of charge may, under certain conditions,
accelerate without radiating. In 1990, Millsian founder, Dr. Randell
Mills, solved the electron as a spherical shell of charge centered
on the nucleus. This is called the orbitsphere, and is analogous
to a soap bubble.
One-Electron Atom
Unlike a rigid spinning sphere, the orbitsphere has a complex pattern of motion on its
surface, which gives rise to two angular momentum vectors that give
rise to the phenomenon of electron spin.
Multi-Electron Atoms
As more electrons are added to an
atom, they either merge into an existing shell, or form a new,
concentric shell, which gives an energy minimum. Each shell is an Atomic Orbital (AO), denoted by s, p, d, f, etc. The Maxwellian forces between these shells determines their radii. When electrons combine in a p or higher shell, they form
non-uniform charge density distributions on the surface of the shell that are spherical harmonics (in Quantum Mechanics, these are spatial lobes.)
Potassium Atom AOs
The Molecular Bond
When two hydrogen atoms bond, the electrons stretch over both protons to form a prolate spheroidal shell, called a Molecular Orbital (MO). The charge builds up at the ends of the molecule, closer to the
protons, reducing the total energy of the system. For more complex atoms, the MO shell can form around the AO shells, such as in
O2 and N2, or it can form between them, such as in
Cl2.
H2 Molecule
O2 Molecule
Cl2 Molecule
Visualizations of
molecules on this site are real physical structures, and bear no
resemblance to the electron-cloud-density distributions of
traditional quantum mechanics. Instead, electrons are spheroidal
layers of negative charge that occupy discrete positions in space
(although they may be harmonically vibrating or rotating), and they
remain stable due to Maxwell's Equations and Newton's Laws.
Hover the mouse over the image below
to view how scientists viewed the butane molecule before and after
the GUT-CP breakthrough.